Article Figures & Data
Tables
Characteristic Value Household Level Annual household income (dollars) 415 (1,145) Nonagricultural income 81.4% Household size 8.48 (5.15) Number of parcels 2.31 (0.85) Own cattle 29.7% Female-headed households 6.8% Migrant households 16.5% Ever experienced land conflict 19.2% Household head’s parents from same village 75.5% Plot/Cultivator Level Parcel size, hectares 1.62 (2.26) Length of tenure, years 15.24 (13.68) Quality: sloped terrain 6.5% Quality: lowland terrain 20.4% Acquired through inheritance 46.1% Acquired through allocation by household head 23.2% Acquired through gift/allocation by traditional authority 20.5% Acquired by purchase/rental 0.2% Value of output per hectare (dollars) 12.68 (189.48) Literacy of cultivator 13.0% % of cultivators who are household heads 65.9% % female cultivators 34.6% Age of cultivator 44.36 (15.58) Note: Standard deviations in parentheses.
In Your Opinion, What Level of Risk Does Each of the Following Types of Conflict Present? For Your Household In the Village Today In the Village in the Near Future In the Village in the Far Future None Somewhat Serious None Somewhat Serious None Somewhat Serious None Somewhat Serious Arrival of new migrants 69.6 16.4 4.8 61.2 23.9 6.5 50.0 24.4 9.6 42.0 24.9 13.5 Outsiders seeking land for 73.3 14.9 4.4 66.1 19.4 5.5 54.9 21.4 7.7 48.3 21.8 10.5 nonagricultural use Former residents returning 71.1 14.9 7.6 61.8 21.8 8.7 52.6 22.8 11.4 46.6 23.0 14.3 Inheritance 71.3 16.5 5.2 59.1 25.6 6.6 50.5 26.2 9.4 44.6 25.3 12.6 Livestock damage 28.4 42.6 23.2 16.6 49.2 27.9 12.6 43.6 32.6 11.7 36.9 37.0 Access to water for livestock 62.5 24.2 6.8 53.9 30.5 8.2 46.0 30.8 11.1 41.5 29.9 14.1 Conflicts in general 41.6 33.9 19.2 33.4 39.3 22.0 27.9 38.5 28.1 24.4 34.8 35.4 Are You Concerned That You Could One Day Lose Your Land as a Result of the Following? Not at All Somewhat Yes Expropriation by the state 34.3 19.2 46.5 Expropriation by villager 75.9 12.3 11.9 Your Household In the Village in General In the Village in the Near Future In the village in general 0.812 In the village in the near future 0.706 0.848 In the village in the further future 0.571 0.685 0.794 Note: Correlations are averaged over each conflict type.
Arrival of New Migrants Outsiders Seeking Nonagricultural Land Former Residents Returning Inheritance Livestock Damage Access to water for Livestock Conflicts in General Expropriation by State Arrival of new migrants Outsiders seeking land for nonagricultural purposes 0.538 Former residents returning 0.431 0.360 Inheritance 0.296 0.286 0.361 Livestock damage 0.225 0.181 0.260 0.297 Access to water for livestock 0.177 0.192 0.244 0.223 0.354 Conflicts in general 0.294 0.248 0.305 0.400 0.374 0.242 Expropriation by state 0.0737 0.0854 0.1135 0.1234 0.0737 0.0802 0.151 Expropriation by villager 0.1226 0.0856 0.1325 0.0957 0.1243 0.1496 0.147 0.196 Note: Correlations calculated for own household reference frame.
For Your Household In the Village Today In the Village in the Near Future In the Village in the Far Future Somewhat Serious Somewhat Serious Somewhat Serious Somewhat Serious Arrival of new migrants −0.002
(0.084)−0.455**
(0.181)0.068
(0.075)−0.443***
(0.148)0.191***
(0.067)−0.379***
(0.126)0.194**
(0.069)−0.231**
(0.102)Outsiders seeking land for nonagricultural purposes −0.155
(0.084)−0.036
(0.162)0.018
(0.077)−0.073
(0.144)0.093
(0.071)−0.147
(0.123)0.119
(0.065)−0.087
(0.108)Former residents returning −0.025
(0.075)−0.422***
(0.137)0.078
(0.069)−0.355**
(0.132)0.101
(0.069)−0.356***
(0.115)0.148**
(0.066)−0.314***
(0.094)Inheritance 0.013
(0.079)−0.044
(0.134)0.094
(0.065)−0.098
(0.119)0.108
(0.072)−0.071
(0.117)0.115
(0.067)−0.119
(0.098)Livestock damage −0.117
(0.068)−0.077
(0.091)−0.181**
(0.075)−0.165
(0.094)−0.067
(0.077)−0.092
(0.090)−0.035
(0.074)−0.058
(0.084)Access to water for livestock −0.032
(0.078)−0.229*
(0.117)−0.021
(0.073)−0.265**
(0.115)0.005
(0.071)−0.328***
(0.098)0.025
(0.070)−0.313***
(0.102)Conflicts in general 0.004
(0.066)−0.015
(0.090)0.071
(0.062)−0.001
(0.091)0.097
(0.070)−0.078
(0.090)0.017
(0.072)−0.061
(0.083)Expropriation by state 0.063
(0.081)0.002
(0.085)Expropriation by villager 0.099
(0.072)−0.083
(0.097)Arrival of New Migrants Former Residents Returning Access to Water for Livestock Village: remote −0.0219 (0.0708) 0.127* (0.0701) 0.204*** (0.0711) Village: per capita income 0.0778** (0.0391) 0.0656* (0.0383) 0.0403 (0.0420) Village: transhumance cattle route 0.102 (0.0887) −0.00868 (0.0888) −0.0352 (0.0874) Village: livestock prevalence 0.0474 (0.0907) 0.0449 (0.0918) −0.199** (0.0880) Village: health clinic 0.0158 (0.0841) 0.0287 (0.0815) 0.129 (0.0800) Male household head 0.166*** (0.0456) 0.0200 (0.0469) 0.129*** (0.0408) Female household head −0.0150 (0.169) −0.162 (0.157) −0.0512 (0.136) Literacy 0.235*** (0.0684) 0.245*** (0.0646) 0.142** (0.0562) Household head’s parents migrated 0.0941 (0.0675) 0.299*** (0.0775) 0.271*** (0.0681) Log of household’s income 0.0382** (0.0166) 0.0432** (0.0171) 0.0356** (0.0162) Log of number of cattle 0.0484 (0.0310) 0.0461 (0.0289) 0.0724*** (0.0244) Household size 0.0108 (0.00685) 0.000686 (0.00484) 0.00464 (0.00503) Irrigation −0.120 (0.148) 0.154 (0.155) 0.316* (0.164) Lowland 0.145 (0.104) 0.0983 (0.0936) −0.0951 (0.102) Sloped 0.260* (0.137) 0.477*** (0.128) −0.118 (0.133) Size of household landholding –0.0366*** (0.00907) −0.0169** (0.00836) 0.00875 (0.00642) Constant 1 2.136*** (0.358) 2.081*** (0.365) 1.093*** (0.381) Constant 2 3.061*** (0.353) 2.807*** (0.365) 2.181*** (0.386) Number of observations 6,134 6,283 5,930 Tenure Insecurity Measures Coef. Controls Coef. Migration: somewhat 0.0703
(0.0893)Female −0.117
(0.0979)Migration: serious −0.449**
(0.194)Male non–household head 0.105
(0.137)Outsiders seeking nonagricultural land: somewhat −0.160
(0.0910)Age 0.00111
(0.00210)Outsiders seeking nonagricultural land: serious 0.276
(0.180)Literate 0.145*
(0.0759)Former residents returning: somewhat −0.0134
(0.0759)Plot size −0.209***
(0.0257)Former residents returning: serious −0.334**
(0.128)Length of tenure 0.00229
(0.00277)Inheritance: somewhat 0.0655
(0.0810)Irrigation 0.208
(0.142)Inheritance: serious 0.118
(0.138)Household resides on the parcel −0.0513
(0.0368)Livestock damage: somewhat −0.0956
(0.0695)Lowland terrain 0.598***
(0.0969)Livestock damage: serious 0.0122
(0.0942)Sloped terrain −0.0212
(0.113)Water access: somewhat 0.0101
(0.0823)Household size 0.0104
(0.00741)Water access: serious −0.176
(0.115)Log of nonagricultural household income −0.00686
(0.00706)State expropriation: somewhat −0.0774
(0.0846)Log of number of cattle −0.0708**
(0.0305)State expropriation: serious 0.0126
(0.0867)Expropriation by villager: somewhat 0.123
(0.0768)Expropriation by villager: serious −0.0434
(0.0957)Constant 6.504***
(0.177)Number of observations 4,157 R-squared 0.301 - TABLE 10
Aggregated Tenure Insecurity Measure Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Instrumental Variable (IV) Results
OLS IV Perceived tenure insecurity −0.517*** (0.198) −8.755** (4.385) Female −0.116 (0.0977) −0.265* (0.159) Male non–household head 0.0875 (0.133) 0.191 (0.189) Age 0.000988 (0.00208) −0.000556 (0.00315) Literate 0.136* (0.0743) 0.139 (0.125) Plot size −0.209*** (0.0256) −0.207*** (0.0264) Length of tenure 0.00214 (0.00279) 0.00110 (0.00351) Irrigation 0.220 (0.141) 0.313* (0.188) Household resides on the parcel −0.0494 (0.0369) −0.0552 (0.0518) Lowland terrain 0.602*** (0.0970) 0.581*** (0.119) Sloped terrain −0.0275 (0.112) 0.0359 (0.186) Household size 0.0110 (0.00758) 0.0177* (0.00985) Log of nonagricultural household income – 0.00794 (0.00691) −0.000832 (0.0113) Log of number of cattle −0.0809*** (0.0300) −0.0536 (0.0506) Constant 6.383*** (0.160) 5.978*** (0.326) Number of observations 4,157 4,127 R-squared 0.295 0.369 - TABLE 11
Regression of Agricultural Productivity on Principal Components Tenure Insecurity Measures
PCA1 PCA2 PCA3 Perceived tenure insecurity −0.0790 (0.0750) −0.160* (0.0883) −0.395*** (0.123) Female −0.0579 (0.102) −0.0590 (0.102) −0.0633 (0.101) Male non-household head 0.0806 (0.137) 0.0798 (0.136) 0.0981 (0.137) Age 0.000541 (0.00215) 0.000491 (0.00215) 0.000660 (0.00214) Literate 0.123 (0.0780) 0.126 (0.0782) 0.128 (0.0781) Plot size −0.209*** (0.0256) −0.210*** (0.0255) −0.210*** (0.0255) Length of tenure 0.00271 (0.00274) 0.00268 (0.00272) 0.00254 (0.00271) Irrigation 0.211 (0.140) 0.213 (0.140) 0.210 (0.139) Household resides on the parcel −0.0685* (0.0376) −0.0681* (0.0374) −0.0694* (0.0372) Lowland terrain 0.607*** (0.0951) 0.608*** (0.0952) 0.607*** (0.0952) Sloped terrain −0.0281 (0.111) −0.0250 (0.111) −0.0252 (0.112) Household size 0.0102 (0.00765) 0.0103 (0.00764) 0.0102 (0.00757) Log of nonagricultural household income −0.00881 (0.00683) −0.00831 (0.00685) −0.00757 (0.00692) Log of number of cattle −0.0822*** (0.0305) −0.0807*** (0.0305) −0.0749** (0.0303) Constant 6.498*** (0.161) 6.539*** (0.163) 6.535*** (0.163) Number of observations 4,158 4,158 4,158 R-squared 0.279 0.279 0.282 Mean of perceived tenure insecurity variable 0.195 0.313 0.126 Implied agricultural productivity loss — 5.0% 5.0%
