Regency-Level Effects of Oil Palm Expansion on Sectoral Shares of Women (2000–2005–2010–2015)
| Share of Women Working (1) | Share of Women in Nonagricultural Sector (2) | Share of Women in Agricultural Family Labor (3) | Share of Women in Agricultural Wage Labor (4) | Share of Women in Nonagricultural Self-Employment (5) | Share of Women in Nonagricultural Wage Labor (6) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Instrumental variable | ||||||
| Share of smallholder oil palm area in regency (0–1) | −2.910** | −0.162 | −3.188** | 0.942 | −0.639 | 0.438 |
| (1.184) | (0.630) | (1.284) | (0.626) | (0.454) | (0.286) | |
| R-squared | 0.155 | 0.402 | 0.106 | 0.072 | 0.115 | 0.558 |
| Kleibergen Wald F-statistic | 23.532 | 23.532 | 23.532 | 23.532 | 23.532 | 23.532 |
| Observations | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 |
| OLS model | ||||||
| Share of smallholder oil palm area in regency (0–1) | −0.731** | 0.339*** | −0.613** | −0.011 | 0.186** | 0.114 |
| (0.348) | (0.129) | (0.301) | (0.190) | (0.093) | (0.075) | |
| R-squared | 0.235 | 0.409 | 0.216 | 0.116 | 0.185 | 0.564 |
| Observations | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 |
Note: The data sources are SAKERNAS and Tree Crop Statistics. The dependent variables are shares ranging between 0 and 1. The IV and OLS estimates are reported with spatial HAC standard errors using a 100 km cutoff. The instrument is the maximum attainable oil palm yield per regency × the national oil palm expansion. We control for the mean age of working-age women, national oil palm expansion, regency fixed effects, year dummies, region trends, initial levels of population density, forest cover, hospital density, and electrification × the time trend. Initial levels are based on data from 2000.