Regency-Level Effects of Oil Palm Expansion in Land-Scare and Land-Abundant Settings (2000–2005–2010–2015)
| Share Working (1) | Share in Nonagricultural Sector (2) | Share in Agricultural Family Labor (3) | Share in Agricultural Wage Labor (4) | Share in Nonagricultural Self-Employment (5) | Share in Nonagricultural Wage Labor (6) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Men | ||||||
| Share of smallholder oil palm area in regency (0–1) | −0.296 | 0.589 | −1.027*** | 0.674 | 0.592** | 0.018 |
| (0.305) | (0.379) | (0.291) | (0.428) | (0.232) | (0.261) | |
| Share of smallholder oil palm area in regency (0–1) × Share of forest cover in 2000 (0–1) | 0.218 | −1.713* | 1.841*** | −0.005 | −1.777*** | −0.020 |
| (0.680) | (0.988) | (0.706) | (1.027) | (0.631) | (0.673) | |
| R-squared | 0.144 | 0.402 | 0.159 | 0.251 | 0.165 | 0.567 |
| Observations | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 |
| Women | ||||||
| Share of smallholder oil palm area in regency (0–1) | −1.777*** | 0.108 | −1.516** | −0.452 | 0.276 | −0.061 |
| (0.675) | (0.262) | (0.683) | (0.567) | (0.229) | (0.182) | |
| Share of smallholder oil palm area in regency (0–1) × Share of forest cover in 2000 (0–1) | 3.067* | 0.678 | 2.649* | 1.292 | −0.264 | 0.512 |
| (1.606) | (0.599) | (1.524) | (1.307) | (0.495) | (0.437) | |
| R-squared | 0.241 | 0.409 | 0.220 | 0.119 | 0.185 | 0.564 |
| Observations | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 |
Note: The data sources are SAKERNAS, Margono et al. (2014), and Tree Crops Statistics. The dependent variables are shares ranging between 0 and 1. The OLS estimates are reported with spatial HAC standard errors using a 100 km cutoff. We control for national oil palm expansion, regency fixed effects, year dummies, region trends and initial levels of population density, hospital density, and electrification × the time trend. The initial levels are based on data from 2000.