Regency-Level Effects of Oil Palm Expansion on Sectoral Shares of Men (2000–2005–2010–2015)
| Share of Men Working (1) | Share of Men in Nonagricultural Sector (2) | Share of Men in Agricultural Family Labor (3) | Share of Men in Agricultural Wage Labor (4) | Share of Men in Nonagricultural Self-Employment (5) | Share of Men in Nonagricultural Wage Labor (6) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Instrumental variable | ||||||
| Share of smallholder oil palm area in regency (0–1) | −0.372 | −1.771** | −1.053* | 2.686*** | −1.695** | 0.112 |
| (0.523) | (0.886) | (0.627) | (0.604) | (0.670) | (0.571) | |
| R-squared | 0.143 | 0.345 | 0.120 | −0.009 | −0.000 | 0.567 |
| Kleibergen Wald F-statistic | 23.312 | 23.312 | 23.312 | 23.312 | 23.312 | 23.312 |
| Observations | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 |
| OLS model | ||||||
| Share of smallholder oil palm area in regency (0–1) | −0.222* | 0.007 | −0.401*** | 0.672*** | −0.012 | 0.012 |
| (0.122) | (0.203) | (0.135) | (0.160) | (0.133) | (0.126) | |
| R-squared | 0.144 | 0.401 | 0.150 | 0.251 | 0.158 | 0.567 |
| Observations | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 | 827 |
Note: Data sources are SAKERNAS and Tree Crops Statistics. Dependent variables are shares, ranging between 0 and 1. IV and OLS estimates are reported with spatial HAC standard errors using a 100 km cutoff. Instrument is the maximum attainable oil palm yield per regency times national oil palm expansion. We control for mean age of working-age men, national oil palm expansion, regency fixed effects, year dummies, region trends, and initial levels of population density, forest cover, hospital density, and electrification multiplied by time trend. Initial levels are based on data from 2000.